![]() A Li-ion battery from a Nokia 3310 mobile phone | |
Specific energy | {{{EtoW}}} |
---|---|
Energy density | (0.90–2.43 MJ/L) |
Charge/discharge efficiency | 80–90%[3] |
Energy/consumer-price |
7.6Wh/US$ US$132/kWh[4] |
Nominal cell voltage | 3.6 / 3.7 / 3.8 / 3.85 V, LiFePO4 3.2 V |
A lithium-ion battery or Li-ion battery is a type of rechargeable battery in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode through an electrolyte to the positive electrode during discharge and back when charging. Li-ion batteries use an intercalated lithium compound as the material at the positive electrode and typically graphite at the negative electrode.
Li-ion batteries have a high energy density, no memory effect (other than LFP cells)[5] and low self-discharge. Cells can be manufactured to either prioritize energy or power density.[6] They can however be a safety hazard since they contain flammable electrolytes and if damaged or incorrectly charged can lead to explosions and fires.
A prototype Li-ion battery was developed by Akira Yoshino in 1985, based on earlier research by Rachid Yazami, John Goodenough, M. Stanley Whittingham and Koichi Mizushima during the 1970s–1980s,[7][8][9] and then a commercial Li-ion battery was developed by a Sony and Asahi Kasei team led by Yoshio Nishi in 1991.[10] Lithium-ion batteries are commonly used for portable electronics and electric vehicles and are growing in popularity for military and aerospace applications.[11]
History[]
Research on rechargeable Li-ion batteries dates to the 1960s; one of the earliest examples is a CuF
2/Li battery developed by NASA in 1965. The breakthrough that produced the earliest form of the modern Li-ion battery was made by British chemist M. Stanley Whittingham in 1974, who first used titanium disulfide (TiS
2) as a cathode material, which has a layered structure that can take in lithium ions without significant changes to its crystal structure. Exxon tried to commercialize this battery in the late 1970s, but found the synthesis expensive and complex, as TiS
2 is sensitive to moisture and releases toxic H
2S gas on contact with water. More prohibitively, the batteries were also prone to spontaneously catching fire due to the presence of metallic lithium in the cells.[12]
In 1980, Koichi Mizushima and John B. Goodenough, after testing a range of alternative materials, replaced TiS
2 with lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO
2, or LCO), which has a similar layered structure but offers a higher voltage and is much more stable in air. This material would later be used in the first commercial Li-ion battery, although it did not, on its own, resolve the persistent issue of flammability.[12] The same year, Rachid Yazami demonstrated the reversible electrochemical intercalation of lithium in graphite,[13][14] and invented the lithium graphite electrode (anode).[15][7]
These early attempts to develop rechargeable Li-ion batteries used lithium metal anodes, which were ultimately abandoned due to safety concerns, as lithium metal is unstable and prone to dendrite formation, which can cause short-circuiting. The eventual solution was to use an intercalation anode, similar to that used for the cathode, which prevents the formation of lithium metal during battery charging. A variety of anode materials were studied; in 1987, Akira Yoshino patented what would become the first commercial lithium-ion battery using an anode of "soft carbon" (a charcoal-like material) along with Goodenough's previously reported LCO cathode and a carbonate ester-based electrolyte. In 1991, using Yoshino's design, Sony began producing and selling the world's first rechargeable lithium-ion batteries. The following year, a joint venture between Toshiba and Asashi Kasei Co. also released their own lithium-ion battery.[12]
Significant improvements in energy density were achieved in the 1990s by replacing the soft carbon anode first with hard carbon and later with graphite, a concept originally proposed by Jürgen Otto Besenhard in 1974 but considered unfeasible due to unresolved incompatibilities with the electrolytes then in use.[12][16][17]
In 2012 John B. Goodenough, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino received the 2012 IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies for developing the lithium ion battery; Goodenough, Whittingham and Yoshino were awarded the 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for the development of lithium ion batteries".
In 2010, global lithium-ion battery production capacity was 20 gigawatt-hours.[18] By 2016, it was 28 GWh, with 16.4 GWh in China.[19]
Development[]
- 1973: Adam Heller proposed the lithium thionyl chloride battery, still used in implanted medical devices and in defense systems where a greater than 20-year shelf life, high energy density, and/or tolerance for extreme operating temperatures are required.[20]
- 1977: Samar Basu demonstrated electrochemical intercalation of lithium in graphite at the University of Pennsylvania.[21][22] This led to the development of a workable lithium intercalated graphite electrode at Bell Labs (LiC
6)[23] to provide an alternative to the lithium metal electrode battery. - 1979: Working in separate groups, Ned A. Godshall et al.,[24][25][26] and, shortly thereafter, John B. Goodenough (Oxford University) and Koichi Mizushima (Tokyo University), demonstrated a rechargeable lithium cell with voltage in the 4 V range using lithium cobalt dioxide (LiCoO
2) as the positive electrode and lithium metal as the negative electrode.[27][28] This innovation provided the positive electrode material that enabled early commercial lithium batteries. LiCoO
2 is a stable positive electrode material which acts as a donor of lithium ions, which means that it can be used with a negative electrode material other than lithium metal.[29] By enabling the use of stable and easy-to-handle negative electrode materials, LiCoO
2 enabled novel rechargeable battery systems. Godshall et al. further identified the similar value of ternary compound lithium-transition metal-oxides such as the spinel LiMn2O4, Li2MnO3, LiMnO2, LiFeO2, LiFe5O8, and LiFe5O4 (and later lithium-copper-oxide and lithium-nickel-oxide cathode materials in 1985)[30] - 1980: Rachid Yazami demonstrated the reversible electrochemical intercalation of lithium in graphite,[31][32] and invented the lithium graphite electrode (anode).[33][34] The organic electrolytes available at the time would decompose during charging with a graphite negative electrode. Yazami used a solid electrolyte to demonstrate that lithium could be reversibly intercalated in graphite through an electrochemical mechanism. As of 2011, Yazami's graphite electrode was the most commonly used electrode in commercial lithium-ion batteries.
- The negative electrode has its origins in PAS (polyacenic semiconductive material) discovered by Tokio Yamabe and later by Shjzukuni Yata in the early 1980s.[35][36][37][38] The seed of this technology was the discovery of conductive polymers by Professor Hideki Shirakawa and his group, and it could also be seen as having started from the polyacetylene lithium ion battery developed by Alan MacDiarmid and Alan J. Heeger et al.[39]
- 1982: Godshall et al. were awarded U.S. patent 4340652[40] for the use of LiCoO2 as cathodes in lithium batteries, based on Godshall's Stanford University Ph.D. dissertation and 1979 publications.
- 1983: Michael M. Thackeray, Peter Bruce, William David, and John B. Goodenough developed manganese spinel, Mn2O4, as a charged cathode material for lithium-ion batteries. It has two flat plateaus on discharge with lithium one at 4V, stoichiometry LiMn2O4, and one at 3V with a final stoichiometry of Li2Mn2O4.[41]
- 1985: Akira Yoshino assembled a prototype cell using carbonaceous material into which lithium ions could be inserted as one electrode, and lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO
2) as the other.[42] This dramatically improved safety. LiCoO
2 enabled industrial-scale production and enabled the commercial lithium-ion battery. - 1989: Arumugam Manthiram and John B. Goodenough discovered the polyanion class of cathodes.[43][44] They showed that positive electrodes containing polyanions, e.g., sulfates, produce higher voltages than oxides due to the inductive effect of the polyanion. This polyanion class contains materials such as lithium iron phosphate.[45]
- 1990: Jeff Dahn and two colleagues at Dalhousie University reported reversible intercalation of lithium ions into graphite in the presence of ethylene carbonate solvent, thus finding the final piece of the puzzle leading to the modern lithium-ion battery.[46]
Commercialization and advances[]
The performance and capacity of lithium-ion batteries increased as development progressed.
- 1991: Sony and Asahi Kasei released the first commercial lithium-ion battery.[47] The Japanese team that successfully commercialized the technology was led by Yoshio Nishi.[48]
- 1996: Goodenough, Akshaya Padhi and coworkers proposed lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO
4) and other phospho-olivines (lithium metal phosphates with the same structure as mineral olivine) as positive electrode materials.[49][50] - 1998: C. S. Johnson, J. T. Vaughey, M. M. Thackeray, T. E. Bofinger, and S. A. Hackney report the discovery of the high capacity high voltage lithium-rich NMC cathode materials.[51]
- 2001: Arumugam Manthiram and co-workers discovered that the capacity limitations of layered oxide cathodes is a result of chemical instability that can be understood based on the relative positions of the metal 3d band relative to the top of the oxygen 2p band.[52][53][54] This discovery has had significant implications for the practically accessible compositional space of lithium ion battery layered oxide cathodes, as well as their stability from a safety perspective.
- 2001: Christopher Johnson, Michael Thackeray, Khalil Amine, and Jaekook Kim file a patent[55][56] for lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) lithium rich cathodes based on a domain structure.
- 2001: Zhonghua Lu and Jeff Dahn file a patent[57] for the NMC class of positive electrode materials, which offers safety and energy density improvements over the widely used lithium cobalt oxide.
- 2002: Yet-Ming Chiang and his group at MIT showed a substantial improvement in the performance of lithium batteries by boosting the material's conductivity by doping it[58] with aluminium, niobium and zirconium. The exact mechanism causing the increase became the subject of widespread debate.[59]
- 2004: Yet-Ming Chiang again increased performance by utilizing lithium iron phosphate particles of less than 100 nanometers in diameter. This decreased particle density almost one hundredfold, increased the positive electrode's surface area and improved capacity and performance. Commercialization led to a rapid growth in the market for higher capacity lithium-ion batteries, as well as a patent infringement battle between Chiang and John Goodenough.[59]
- 2005: Y Song, PY Zavalij, and M. Stanley Whittingham report a new two-electron vanadium phosphate cathode material with high energy density[60][61]
- 2011: Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) cathodes, developed at Argonne National Laboratory, are manufactured commercially by BASF in Ohio.[62]
- 2011: Lithium-ion batteries accounted for 66% of all portable secondary (i.e., rechargeable) battery sales in Japan.[63]
- 2012: John Goodenough, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino received the 2012 IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies for developing the lithium ion battery.[34]
- 2014: John Goodenough, Yoshio Nishi, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino were awarded the Charles Stark Draper Prize of the National Academy of Engineering for their pioneering efforts in the field.[64]
- 2014: Commercial batteries from Amprius Corp. reached 650 Wh/L (a 20% increase), using a silicon anode and were delivered to customers.[65]
- 2016: Koichi Mizushima and Akira Yoshino received the NIMS Award from the National Institute for Materials Science, for Mizushima's discovery of the LiCoO2 cathode material for the lithium-ion battery and Yoshino's development of the lithium-ion battery.[66]
- 2016: Z. Qi, and Gary Koenig reported a scalable method to produce sub-micrometer sized LiCoO
2 using a template-based approach.[67] - 2019: The Nobel Prize in Chemistry was given to John Goodenough, Stanley Whittingham and Akira Yoshino "for the development of lithium ion batteries".[68]
Uses[]
The vast majority of commercial Li-ion batteries are used in consumer electronics and electric vehicles.[69] Such devices include:
- Portable devices: these include mobile phones and smartphones, laptops and tablets, digital cameras and camcorders, electronic cigarettes, handheld game consoles and torches (flashlights).
- Power tools: Li-ion batteries are used in tools such as cordless drills, sanders, saws, and a variety of garden equipment including whipper-snippers and hedge trimmers.[70]
- Electric vehicles: electric vehicle batteries are used in electric cars,[71] hybrid vehicles, electric motorcycles and scooters, electric bicycles, personal transporters and advanced electric wheelchairs. Also radio-controlled models, model aircraft, aircraft,[72][73][74] and the Mars Curiosity rover.
More niche uses include backup power in telecommunications applications.[75] Lithium-ion batteries are also frequently discussed as a potential option for grid energy storage,[76] although they are not yet cost-competitive at scale.[77]
See also[]
- Borate oxalate
- Comparison of commercial battery types
- European Battery Alliance
- Gigafactory 1
- Lithium as an investment
- Nanowire battery
- Solid-state battery
- Thin film lithium-ion battery
References[]
- ↑ "NCR18650B" (PDF). Panasonic. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 August 2018. Retrieved 7 October 2016.
- ↑ "NCR18650GA" (PDF). Retrieved 2 July 2017.
- ↑ Valøen, Lars Ole and Shoesmith, Mark I. (2007). The effect of PHEV and HEV duty cycles on battery and battery pack performance (PDF). 2007 Plug-in Highway Electric Vehicle Conference: Proceedings. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
- ↑ "Battery Pack Prices Fall to an Average of $132/kWh, But Rising Commodity Prices Start to Bite". Bloomberg New Energy Finance. 30 November 2021. Retrieved 6 January 2022.
- ↑ "Memory effect now also found in lithium-ion batteries". Retrieved 5 August 2015.
- ↑ Lain, Michael J.; Brandon, James; Kendrick, Emma (December 2019). "Design Strategies for High Power vs. High Energy Lithium Ion Cells". Batteries. 5 (4): 64. doi:10.3390/batteries5040064.
Commercial lithium ion cells are now optimised for either high energy density or high power density. There is a trade off in cell design between the power and energy requirements.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 "IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies Recipients". IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
- ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2019". Nobel Prize. Nobel Foundation. 2019. Retrieved 1 January 2020.
- ↑ "NIMS Award Goes to Koichi Mizushima and Akira Yoshino". National Institute for Materials Science. 2016-09-14. https://www.nims.go.jp/eng/news/press/2016/10/201610120.html.
- ↑ "Yoshio Nishi". National Academy of Engineering. Retrieved 12 October 2019.
- ↑ Ballon, Massie Santos (14 October 2008). "Electrovaya, Tata Motors to make electric Indica". cleantech.com. Archived from the original on 9 May 2011. Retrieved 11 June 2010.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Li, Matthew; Lu, Jun; Chen, Zhongwei; Amine, Khalil (2018-06-14). "30 Years of Lithium-Ion Batteries". Advanced Materials. 30 (33): 1800561. doi:10.1002/adma.201800561. ISSN 0935-9648.
- ↑ International Meeting on Lithium Batteries, Rome, 27–29 April 1982, C.L.U.P. Ed. Milan, Abstract #23
- ↑ Yazami, R.; Touzain, P. (1983). "A reversible graphite-lithium negative electrode for electrochemical generators". Journal of Power Sources. 9 (3): 365–371. Bibcode:1983JPS.....9..365Y. doi:10.1016/0378-7753(83)87040-2.
- ↑ "Rachid Yazami". National Academy of Engineering. Retrieved 12 October 2019.
- ↑ Besenhard, J. O.; Eichinger, G. (1976). "High energy density lithium cells". Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry. 68: 1–18. doi:10.1016/S0022-0728(76)80298-7.
- ↑ Eichinger, G.; Besenhard, J. O. (1976). "High energy density lithium cells". Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry. 72: 1–31. doi:10.1016/S0022-0728(76)80072-1.
- ↑ "Lithium-ion batteries for mobility and stationary storage applications" (PDF). European Commission. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 July 2019.
global lithium-ion battery production from about 20GWh (~6.5bn€) in 2010
- ↑ "Switching From Lithium-Ion Could Be Harder Than You Think". 19 October 2017. Retrieved 20 October 2017.
- ↑ Heller, Adam (25 November 1975). "Electrochemical Cell". United States Patent. Retrieved 18 November 2013.
- ↑ Zanini, M.; Basu, S.; Fischer, J. E. (1978). "Alternate synthesis and reflectivity spectrum of stage 1 lithium—graphite intercalation compound". Carbon. 16 (3): 211–212. doi:10.1016/0008-6223(78)90026-X.
- ↑ Basu, S.; Zeller, C.; Flanders, P. J.; Fuerst, C. D.; Johnson, W. D.; Fischer, J. E. (1979). "Synthesis and properties of lithium-graphite intercalation compounds". Materials Science and Engineering. 38 (3): 275–283. doi:10.1016/0025-5416(79)90132-0.
- ↑ US 4304825, Basu; Samar, "Rechargeable battery", issued 8 December 1981, assigned to Bell Telephone Laboratories
- ↑ Godshall, N.A.; Raistrick, I.D.; Huggins, R.A. (1980). "Thermodynamic investigations of ternary lithium-transition metal-oxygen cathode materials". Materials Research Bulletin. 15 (5): 561. doi:10.1016/0025-5408(80)90135-X.
- ↑ Godshall, Ned A. (17 October 1979) "Electrochemical and Thermodynamic Investigation of Ternary Lithium -Transition Metal-Oxide Cathode Materials for Lithium Batteries: Li2MnO4 spinel, LiCoO2, and LiFeO2", Presentation at 156th Meeting of the Electrochemical Society, Los Angeles, CA.
- ↑ Godshall, Ned A. (18 May 1980) Electrochemical and Thermodynamic Investigation of Ternary Lithium-Transition Metal-Oxygen Cathode Materials for Lithium Batteries. Ph.D. Dissertation, Stanford University
- ↑ "USPTO search for inventions by "Goodenough, John"". Patft.uspto.gov. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
- ↑ Mizushima, K.; Jones, P. C.; Wiseman, P. J.; Goodenough, J. B. (1980). "Li
xCoO
2(0<x<-1): A new cathode material for batteries of high energy density". Materials Research Bulletin. 15 (6): 783–789. doi:10.1016/0025-5408(80)90012-4. - ↑ Poizot, P.; Laruelle, S.; Grugeon, S.; Tarascon, J. (2000). "Nano-sized transition-metal oxides as negative-electrode materials for lithium-ion batteries". Nature. 407 (6803): 496–499. Bibcode:2000Natur.407..496P. doi:10.1038/35035045. PMID 11028997. S2CID 205009092.
- ↑ Godshall, N (1986). "Lithium transport in ternary lithium-copper-oxygen cathode materials". Solid State Ionics. 18–19: 788–793. doi:10.1016/0167-2738(86)90263-8.
- ↑ International Meeting on Lithium Batteries, Rome, 27–29 April 1982, C.L.U.P. Ed. Milan, Abstract #23
- ↑ Yazami, R.; Touzain, P. (1983). "A reversible graphite-lithium negative electrode for electrochemical generators". Journal of Power Sources. 9 (3): 365–371. Bibcode:1983JPS.....9..365Y. doi:10.1016/0378-7753(83)87040-2.
- ↑ "Rachid Yazami". National Academy of Engineering. Retrieved 12 October 2019.
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 "IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies Recipients". IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
- ↑ Yamabe, T. (2015). "Lichiumu Ion Niji Denchi: Kenkyu Kaihatu No Genryu Wo Kataru" [Lithium Ion Rechargeable Batteries: Tracing the Origins of Research and Development: Focus on the History of Negative-Electrode Material Development]. The Journal Kagaku (in Japanese). 70 (12): 40–46. Archived from the original on 8 August 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2016.
- ↑ Novák, P.; Muller, K.; Santhanam, K. S. V.; Haas, O. (1997). "Electrochemically Active Polymers for Rechargeable Batteries". Chem. Rev. 97 (1): 271–272. doi:10.1021/cr941181o. PMID 11848869.
- ↑ Yamabe, T.; Tanaka, K.; Ohzeki, K.; Yata, S. (1982). "Electronic Structure of Polyacenacene. A One-Dimensional Graphite". Solid State Communications. 44 (6): 823. Bibcode:1982SSCom..44..823Y. doi:10.1016/0038-1098(82)90282-4.
- ↑ US 4601849, Yata, S., "Electrically conductive organic polymeric material and process for production thereof"
- ↑ Nigrey, Paul J (1981). "Lightweight Rechargeable Storage Batteries Using Polyacetylene (CH)x as the Cathode-Active Material". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 128 (8): 1651. doi:10.1149/1.2127704.
- ↑ Godshall, N. A.; Raistrick, I. D. and Huggins, R. A. U.S. patent 4340652 "Ternary Compound Electrode for Lithium Cells"; issued 20 July 1982, filed by Stanford University on 30 July 1980.
- ↑ Thackeray, M. M.; David, W. I. F.; Bruce, P. G.; Goodenough, J. B. (1983). "Lithium insertion into manganese spinels". Materials Research Bulletin. 18 (4): 461–472. doi:10.1016/0025-5408(83)90138-1.
- ↑ US 4668595, Yoshino; Akira, "Secondary Battery", issued 10 May 1985, assigned to Asahi Kasei
- ↑ Manthiram, A.; Goodenough, J. B. (1989). "Lithium insertion into Fe2(SO4)3 frameworks". Journal of Power Sources. 26 (3–4): 403–408. Bibcode:1989JPS....26..403M. doi:10.1016/0378-7753(89)80153-3.
- ↑ Manthiram, A.; Goodenough, J. B. (1987). "Lithium insertion into Fe2(MO4)3 frameworks: Comparison of M = W with M = Mo". Journal of Solid State Chemistry. 71 (2): 349–360. Bibcode:1987JSSCh..71..349M. doi:10.1016/0022-4596(87)90242-8.
- ↑ Masquelier, Christian; Croguennec, Laurence (2013). "Polyanionic (Phosphates, Silicates, Sulfates) Frameworks as Electrode Materials for Rechargeable Li (or Na) Batteries". Chemical Reviews. 113 (8): 6552–6591. doi:10.1021/cr3001862. PMID 23742145.
- ↑ Fong, R.; von Sacken, U. (1990). "Studies of lithium intercalation into carbons using nonaqueous electrochemical cells". J. Electrochem. Soc. 137 (7): 2009–2013. Bibcode:1990JElS..137.2009F. doi:10.1149/1.2086855.
- ↑ "Keywords to understanding Sony Energy Devices – keyword 1991". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016.
- ↑ "Yoshio Nishi". National Academy of Engineering. Retrieved 12 October 2019.
- ↑ Padhi, A.K., Naujundaswamy, K.S., Goodenough, J. B. (1996) "LiFePO
4: a novel cathode material for rechargeable batteries". Electrochemical Society Meeting Abstracts, 96-1, p. 73 - ↑ Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 144 (4), p. 1188-1194
- ↑ C. S. Johnson, J. T. Vaughey, M. M. Thackeray, T. E. Bofinger, and S. A. Hackney "Layered Lithium-Manganese Oxide Electrodes Derived from Rock-Salt LixMnyOz (x+y=z) Precursors" 194th Meeting of the Electrochemical Society, Boston, MA, Nov.1-6, (1998)
- ↑ Chebiam, R. V.; Kannan, A. M.; Prado, F.; Manthiram, A. (2001). "Comparison of the chemical stability of the high energy density cathodes of lithium-ion batteries". Electrochemistry Communications. 3 (11): 624–627. doi:10.1016/S1388-2481(01)00232-6.
- ↑ Chebiam, R. V.; Prado, F.; Manthiram, A. (2001). "Soft Chemistry Synthesis and Characterization of Layered Li1−xNi1−yCoyO2−δ (0 ≤ x ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ y ≤ 1)". Chemistry of Materials. 13 (9): 2951–2957. doi:10.1021/cm0102537.
- ↑ Manthiram, Arumugam (2020). "A reflection on lithium-ion battery cathode chemistry". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 1550. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.1550M. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-15355-0. PMC 7096394. PMID 32214093.
- ↑ US US6677082, Thackeray, M; Amine, K. & Kim, J. S., "Lithium metal oxide electrodes for lithium cells and batteries"
- ↑ US US6680143, Thackeray, M; Amine, K. & Kim, J. S., "Lithium metal oxide electrodes for lithium cells and batteries"
- ↑ US US6964828 B2, Lu, Zhonghua, "Cathode compositions for lithium-ion batteries"
- ↑ Chung, S. Y.; Bloking, J. T.; Chiang, Y. M. (2002). "Electronically conductive phospho-olivines as lithium storage electrodes". Nature Materials. 1 (2): 123–128. Bibcode:2002NatMa...1..123C. doi:10.1038/nmat732. PMID 12618828. S2CID 2741069.
- ↑ 59.0 59.1 "In search of the perfect battery" (PDF). The Economist. 6 March 2008. http://www.economist.com/science/tq/displaystory.cfm?story_id=10789409.
- ↑ Song, Y; Zavalij, PY; Whittingham, MS (2005). "ε-VOPO4: electrochemical synthesis and enhanced cathode behavior". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 152 (4): A721–A728. Bibcode:2005JElS..152A.721S. doi:10.1149/1.1862265.
- ↑ Lim, SC; Vaughey, JT; Harrison, WTA; Dussack, LL; Jacobson, AJ; Johnson, JW (1996). "Redox transformations of simple vanadium phosphates: the synthesis of ϵ-VOPO4". Solid State Ionics. 84 (3–4): 219–226. doi:10.1016/0167-2738(96)00007-0.
- ↑ [1]. BASF breaks ground for lithium-ion battery materials plant in Ohio, October 2009.
- ↑ Monthly battery sales statistics. Machinery statistics released by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, March 2011.
- ↑ "Lithium Ion Battery Pioneers Receive Draper Prize, Engineering’s Top Honor" Archived 3 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine, University of Texas, 6 January 2014
- ↑ "At long last, new lithium battery tech actually arrives on the market (and might already be in your smartphone)". ExtremeTech. Retrieved 16 February 2014.
- ↑ "NIMS Award Goes to Koichi Mizushima and Akira Yoshino". National Institute for Materials Science. 2016-09-14. https://www.nims.go.jp/eng/news/press/2016/10/201610120.html.
- ↑ Qi, Zhaoxiang; Koenig, Gary M. (16 August 2016). "High-Performance LiCoO2Sub-Micrometer Materials from Scalable Microparticle Template Processing". ChemistrySelect. 1 (13): 3992–3999. doi:10.1002/slct.201600872.
- ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2019". Nobel Prize. Nobel Foundation. 2019. Retrieved 1 January 2020.
- ↑ Xiao, Maya (June 2019). "Lithium-Ion Battery Market Poised for Strong Growth in Europe; Energy Storage Applications will be Fastest Growing Sector". Interact Analysis. Retrieved 2021-12-21.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "A Guide to Choosing Best Power Tool Battery for Your Cordless Tools". Best Power Tools For Sale, Expert Reviews and Guides. 25 October 2018. https://www.powertoollab.com/best-power-tool-battery.
- ↑ Miller, Peter (10 January 2015). "Automotive Lithium-Ion Batteries". Johnson Matthey Technology Review. 59 (1): 4–13. doi:10.1595/205651315x685445.
- ↑ "Silent 2 Electro". Alisport. Archived from the original on 17 February 2015. Retrieved 6 December 2014.
- ↑ "Pipistrel web site". Archived from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 6 December 2014.
- ↑ "Ventus-2cxa with FES propulsion system". Schempp-Hirth. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 11 March 2015.
- ↑ GR-3150-CORE, Generic Requirements for Secondary Non-Aqueous Lithium Batteries.
- ↑ Hesse, Holger; Schimpe, Michael; Kucevic, Daniel; Jossen, Andreas (2017-12-11). "Lithium-Ion Battery Storage for the Grid—A Review of Stationary Battery Storage System Design Tailored for Applications in Modern Power Grids". Energies. 10 (12): 2107. doi:10.3390/en10122107. ISSN 1996-1073.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ↑ Grey, Clare P.; Hall, David S. (December 2020). "Prospects for lithium-ion batteries and beyond—a 2030 vision". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 6279. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19991-4. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7722877. PMID 33293543.
Further reading[]
- Andrea, Davide (2010). Battery Management Systems for Large Lithium-Ion Battery Packs. Artech House. p. 234. ISBN 978-1608071043. Retrieved 3 June 2013.
- Winter, M; Brodd, RJ (2004). "What Are Batteries, Fuel Cells, and Supercapacitors?". Chemical Reviews. 104 (10): 4245–69. doi:10.1021/cr020730k. PMID 15669155.
External links[]
- Lithium-ion battery (Scholia)
- List of World's Largest Lithium-ion Battery Factories (2020).
- Energy Storage Safety at National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL).
- New More Efficient Lithium-ion Batteries The New York Times. September 2021.
- NREL Innovation Improves Safety of Electric Vehicle Batteries, NREL, October 2015.
- Degradation Mechanisms and Lifetime Prediction for Lithium-Ion Batteries, NREL, July 2015.
- Impact of Temperature Extremes on Large Format Li-ion Batteries for Vehicle Applications, NREL, March 2013.