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Internet

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The Internet (or internet)[n 1] is the global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP)[n 2] to communicate between networks and devices. It is a system for resource access, and is a network of networks that consists of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast range of information resources and services, such as the interlinked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and file sharing. The most popular use of the internet is to browse the World Wide Web, which contains websites like Google and YouTube.

History[]

Foundations[]

Atalla1963

Mohamed M. Atalla invented the MOS transistor (1959), the fundamental building block of Internet infrastructure.

Dawon Kahng

Dawon Kahng co-invented the MOS transistor (1959) with Mohamed Atalla.

The development of transistor technology was fundamental to a new generation of electronic devices that later effected almost every aspect of the human experience.[2][3][4] The MOSFET (metal-oxide-silicon field-effect transistor), also known as the MOS transistor, was later invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959.[5][6][7] It brought new opportunities for miniaturization and mass-production for a wide range of uses. It became the basic building block of the information revolution and the information age,[8][9][10] and laid the foundation for power electronic technology that later enabled the development of wireless Internet technology.[11][12][13]

The MOSFET is the building block or "workhorse" of the information revolution and the information age,[14][15][16] and the most widely manufactured device in history.[17][18] MOS technology, including MOS integrated circuits and power MOSFETs, drive the computers and communications infrastructure that enables the Internet.[19][20][21] Along with computers, other essential elements of the Internet that are built from MOSFETs include mobile devices, tranceivers, base station modules, routers, RF power amplifiers,[22] microprocessors, memory chips, and telecommunication circuits.[23] Advances in MOS technology, including MOSFET scaling (increasing transistor counts at an exponential pace, as predicted by Moore's law), has been the most important contributing factor in the rapid rise of Internet bandwidth in telecommunications networks.[24]

Network bandwidth has been doubling every 18 months since the 1970s, which found expression in Edholm's law,[25] similar to the scaling expressed by Moore's law for semiconductors.

TCP/IP[]

Main article: Internet Protocol Suite
See also: Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol
Yogen Dalal

Yogen Dalal developed the TCP and TCP/IP protocols, the foundations for the Internet.

With so many different network methods, something was needed to unify them. Robert E. Kahn of DARPA and ARPANET recruited Vinton Cerf of Stanford University to work with him on the problem. By 1973, they had worked out a fundamental reformulation, where the differences between network protocols were hidden by using a common internetwork protocol, and instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the ARPANET, the hosts became responsible. Cerf credits Hubert Zimmermann, Gerard LeLann, Louis Pouzin (designer of the CYCLADES network),[26] and his graduate students Yogen Dalal, Judy Estrin, Richard Karp and Carl Sunshine with important work on this design.[27] This Stanford research team became known as the International Network Working Group, formed in 1973 and led by Cerf.[28]

The specification of the resulting protocol, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), was published as RFC 675 by Yogen Dalal, Vint Cerf and Carl Sunshine in December 1974.[29] It contains the first attested use of the term internet, as a shorthand for internetworking.

Between 1976 and 1977, Yogen Dalal proposed separating TCP's routing and transmission control functions into two discrete layers,[30][31] which led to the splitting of TCP into the TCP and IP protocols, and the development of TCP/IP.[31]

With the role of the network reduced to a core of functionality, it became possible to exchange traffic with other network independently from their detailed characteristics, thereby solving Kahn's initial problem. DARPA agreed to fund development of prototype software, and after several years of work, the first demonstration of a gateway between the Packet Radio network in the SF Bay area and the ARPANET was conducted by the Stanford Research Institute. On November 22, 1977 a three network demonstration was conducted including the ARPANET, the SRI's Packet Radio Van on the Packet Radio Network and the Atlantic Packet Satellite network.[32][33]

Stemming from the first specifications of TCP in 1974, TCP/IP emerged in 1978 in nearly its final form, as used for the first decades of the Internet.[34] which is described in IETF publication RFC 791 (September 1981).

IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses which limits the address space to 232 addresses, i.e. 4294967296 addresses.[34] The last available IPv4 address was assigned in January 2011.[35] IPv4 is being replaced by its successor, called "IPv6", which uses 128 bit addresses, providing 2128 addresses, i.e. 340282366920938463463374607431768211456.[36] This is a vastly increased address space. The shift to IPv6 is expected to take many years, decades, or perhaps longer, to complete, since there were four billion machines with IPv4 when the shift began.[35]

The associated standards for IPv4 were published by 1981 as RFCs 791, 792 and 793, and adopted for use. DARPA sponsored or encouraged the development of TCP/IP implementations for many operating systems and then scheduled a migration of all hosts on all of its packet networks to TCP/IP. On January 1, 1983, known as flag day, TCP/IP protocols became the standard for the ARPANET, replacing the earlier NCP protocol.[37] The Internet was thus launched on January 1, 1983.[38]

World Wide Web[]

Taher Elgamal it-sa 2010

Taher Elgamal introduced the Internet security protocols SSL, TLS, and HTTPS, widely adopted across the Internet since the 1990s.

In 1989, while working at CERN, Tim Berners-Lee created the World Wide Web.

The ElGamal signature scheme is a digital signature scheme which is based on the difficulty of computing discrete logarithms. It was described by Taher Elgamal in 1985.[39] Taher Elgamal wrote the 1985 paper entitled "A Public Key Cryptosystem and A Signature Scheme Based on Discrete Logarithms" which proposed the design of the ElGamal signature scheme.[40] The ElGamal signature scheme was the basis for the Digital Signature Algorithm (DSA) adopted by National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) as the Digital Signature Standard (DSS). Elgamal's 1985 paper outlined the ideas that made secure e-commerce possible. Elgamal received the 2019 Marconi Prize for the development.[41]

Egyptian engineer Taher Elgamal is recognized as the father of SSL for the work he did in computer security while working at Netscape, which helped in establishing a private and secure communications on the Internet.[42] Elgamal developed the original Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) protocols, as chief scientist at Netscape Communications from 1995 to 1998, giving him the recognition as the father of SSL.[43][44][45][46] Transport Layer Security (TLS) is an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standard, defined in 1999, that builds on the SSL specifications developed at Netscape Communications for adding the HTTPS protocol to their Netscape Navigator web browser. TLS is a cryptographic protocol designed to provide communications security over a computer network. The protocol is widely used in applications such as email, instant messaging, and voice over IP, but its use in securing HTTPS remains the most publicly visible.

Notes[]

  1. ↑ See Capitalization of Internet
  2. ↑ Despite the name, TCP/IP also includes UDP traffic, which is significant.[1]

References[]

  1. ↑ Amogh Dhamdhere. "Internet Traffic Characterization". Retrieved 2022-05-06.
  2. ↑ Jakubowski, A.; Łukasiak, L. (2010). "History of Semiconductors". Journal of Telecommunications and Information Technology. nr 1: 3–9.
  3. ↑ Lambert, Laura; Poole, Hilary W.; Woodford, Chris; Moschovitis, Christos J. P. (2005). The Internet: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 16. ISBN 9781851096596.
  4. ↑ Gaudin, Sharon (12 December 2007). "The transistor: The most important invention of the 20th century?". Computerworld. https://www.computerworld.com/article/2538123/the-transistor--the-most-important-invention-of-the-20th-century-.html?page=2. Retrieved 10 August 2019. 
  5. ↑ "1960 - Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated". The Silicon Engine. Computer History Museum.
  6. ↑ Lojek, Bo (2007). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 321–3. ISBN 9783540342588.
  7. ↑ "Who Invented the Transistor?". Computer History Museum. 4 December 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2019.
  8. ↑ "Triumph of the MOS Transistor". YouTube. Computer History Museum. 6 August 2010. Retrieved 21 July 2019.
  9. ↑ Raymer, Michael G. (2009). The Silicon Web: Physics for the Internet Age. CRC Press. p. 365. ISBN 9781439803127.
  10. ↑ "Transistors - an overview". ScienceDirect. Retrieved 8 August 2019.
  11. ↑ Baliga, B. Jayant (2005). Silicon RF Power MOSFETS. World Scientific. ISBN 9789812561213.
  12. ↑ Asif, Saad (2018). 5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies. CRC Press. pp. 128–134. ISBN 9780429881343.
  13. ↑ O'Neill, A. (2008). "Asad Abidi Recognized for Work in RF-CMOS". IEEE Solid-State Circuits Society Newsletter. 13 (1): 57–58. doi:10.1109/N-SSC.2008.4785694. ISSN 1098-4232.
  14. ↑ "Triumph of the MOS Transistor". YouTube. Computer History Museum. 6 August 2010. Retrieved 21 July 2019.
  15. ↑ Raymer, Michael G. (2009). The Silicon Web: Physics for the Internet Age. CRC Press. p. 365. ISBN 9781439803127.
  16. ↑ "Transistors - an overview". ScienceDirect. Retrieved 8 August 2019.
  17. ↑ "13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most Frequently Manufactured Human Artifact in History". Computer History Museum. April 2, 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2019.
  18. ↑ Baker, R. Jacob (2011). CMOS: Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation. John Wiley & Sons. p. 7. ISBN 978-1118038239.
  19. ↑ Fossum, Jerry G.; Trivedi, Vishal P. (2013). Fundamentals of Ultra-Thin-Body MOSFETs and FinFETs. Cambridge University Press. p. vii. ISBN 9781107434493.
  20. ↑ Omura, Yasuhisa; Mallik, Abhijit; Matsuo, Naoto (2017). MOS Devices for Low-Voltage and Low-Energy Applications. John Wiley & Sons. p. 53. ISBN 9781119107354.
  21. ↑ Whiteley, Carol; McLaughlin, John Robert (2002). Technology, Entrepreneurs, and Silicon Valley. Institute for the History of Technology. ISBN 9780964921719. These active electronic components, or power semiconductor products, from Siliconix are used to switch and convert power in a wide range of systems, from portable information appliances to the communications infrastructure that enable the Internet. The company's power MOSFETs — tiny solid-state switches, or metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors — and power integrated circuits are widely used in cell phones and notebook computers to manage battery power efficiently
  22. ↑ Asif, Saad (2018). 5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies. CRC Press. pp. 128–134. ISBN 9780429881343.
  23. ↑ Colinge, Jean-Pierre; Greer, James C. (2016). Nanowire Transistors: Physics of Devices and Materials in One Dimension. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 9781107052406.
  24. ↑ Jindal, R. P. (2009). "From millibits to terabits per second and beyond - Over 60 years of innovation". 2009 2nd International Workshop on Electron Devices and Semiconductor Technology: 1–6. doi:10.1109/EDST.2009.5166093.
  25. ↑ Cherry, Steven (2004). "Edholm's law of bandwidth". IEEE Spectrum. 41 (7): 58–60. doi:10.1109/MSPEC.2004.1309810.
  26. ↑ Barry M. Leiner, Vinton G. Cerf, David D. Clark, Robert E. Kahn, Leonard Kleinrock, Daniel C. Lynch, Jon Postel, Larry G. Roberts, Stephen Wolff (1999). "A Brief History of Internet". arXiv:cs/9901011.{{cite arXiv}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. ↑ "Smithsonian Oral and Video Histories: Vinton Cerf". National Museum of American History. Smithsonian Institution. 24 April 1990. Retrieved 23 September 2019.
  28. ↑ "Internet History of 1970s". Internet History. Computer History Museum. Retrieved 23 September 2019.
  29. ↑ Vint Cerf, Yogen Dalal, Carl Sunshine, (December 1974), RFC 675, Specification of Internet Transmission Control Protocol
  30. ↑ Panzaris, Georgios (2008). Machines and romances: the technical and harrative construction of networked computing as a general-purpose platform, 1960-1995. Stanford University. p. 128. Despite the misgivings of Xerox Corporation (which intended to make PUP the basis of a proprietary commercial networking product), researchers at Xerox PARC, including ARPANET pioneers Robert Metcalfe and Yogen Dalal, shared the basic contours of their research with colleagues at TCP and lnternet working group meetings in 1976 and 1977, suggesting the possible benefits of separating TCPs routing and transmission control functions into two discrete layers.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Pelkey, James L. (2007). "Yogen Dalal". Entrepreneurial Capitalism and Innovation: A History of Computer Communications, 1968-1988. Retrieved 5 September 2019.
  32. ↑ "Computer History Museum and Web History Center Celebrate 30th Anniversary of Internet Milestone". Retrieved November 22, 2007.
  33. ↑ Ogg, Erica (2007-11-08). "'Internet van' helped drive evolution of the Web". CNET. http://news.cnet.com/Internet-van-helped-drive-evolution-of-the-Web/2100-1033_3-6217511.html. Retrieved 2011-11-12. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 "BGP Analysis Reports". Retrieved 2013-01-09.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 https://web.archive.org/web/20180406005544/https://www.internetsociety.org/resources/doc/2017/state-of-ipv6-deployment-2017/
  36. ↑ https://www.webopedia.com/DidYouKnow/Internet/ipv6_ipv4_difference.html
  37. ↑ Jon Postel, NCP/TCP Transition Plan, RFC 801
  38. ↑ https://www.usg.edu/galileo/skills/unit07/internet07_02.phtml
  39. ↑ Taher ElGamal (1985). "A Public-Key Cryptosystem and a Signature Scheme Based on Discrete Logarithms" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Information Theory. 31 (4): 469–472. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.476.4791. doi:10.1109/TIT.1985.1057074. S2CID 2973271. (conference version appeared in CRYPTO'84, pp. 10–18)
  40. ↑ Elgamal, Taher (1985). "A Public key Cryptosystem and A Signature Scheme based on discrete Logarithms". IEEE Transactions on Information Theory. 31 (4): 469–472. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.476.4791. doi:10.1109/TIT.1985.1057074. S2CID 2973271.
  41. ↑ https://spectrum.ieee.org/pioneers-web-cryptography-future-authentication
  42. ↑ Messmer, Ellen (2012-12-04). "Father of SSL, Dr. Taher Elgamal, finds fast-moving IT projects in the Middle East". Network World. Archived from the original on 2020-06-22. Retrieved 2020-06-22.
  43. ↑ Messmer, Ellen. "Father of SSL, Dr. Taher Elgamal, Finds Fast-Moving IT Projects in the Middle East". Network World. http://www.networkworld.com/news/2012/120412-elgamal-264739.html. 
  44. ↑ Greene, Tim. "Father of SSL says despite attacks, the security linchpin has lots of life left". Network World. http://www.networkworld.com/news/2011/101111-elgamal-251806.html. 
  45. ↑ Oppliger, Rolf (2016). "Introduction". SSL and TLS: Theory and Practice (2nd ed.). Artech House. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-60807-999-5. Retrieved 2018-03-01 – via Google Books.
  46. ↑ "THE SSL PROTOCOL". Netscape Corporation. 2007. Archived from the original on 14 June 1997.
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