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In business theory, disruptive innovation is innovation that creates a new market and value network or enters at the bottom of an existing market and eventually displaces established market-leading firms, products, and alliances.[1] The concept was developed by the American academic Clayton Christensen and his collaborators beginning in 1995,[2] and has been called the most influential business idea of the early 21st century.[3] Lingfei Wu, Dashun Wang, and James A. Evans generalized this term to identify disruptive science and technological advances from more than 65 million papers, patents and software products that span the period 1954–2014. Their work was featured as the cover of the February 2019 issue of Nature [4] and was selected as the Altmetric 100 most-discussed work in 2019.[5]

Not all innovations are disruptive, even if they are revolutionary. For example, the first automobiles in the late 19th century were not a disruptive innovation, because early automobiles were expensive luxury items that did not disrupt the market for horse-drawn vehicles. The market for transportation essentially remained intact until the debut of the lower-priced Ford Model T in 1908.[6] The mass-produced automobile was a disruptive innovation, because it changed the transportation market, whereas the first thirty years of automobiles did not.

Disruptive innovations tend to be produced by outsiders and entrepreneurs in startups, rather than existing market-leading companies. The business environment of market leaders does not allow them to pursue disruptive innovations when they first arise, because they are not profitable enough at first and because their development can take scarce resources away from sustaining innovations (which are needed to compete against current competition).[7] Small teams are more likely to create disruptive innovations than large teams.[4] A disruptive process can take longer to develop than by the conventional approach and the risk associated to it is higher than the other more incremental, architectural or evolutionary forms of innovations, but once it is deployed in the market, it achieves a much faster penetration and higher degree of impact on the established markets.[8]

Beyond business and economics disruptive innovations can also be considered to disrupt complex systems, including economic and business-related aspects.[9] Through identifying and analyzing systems for possible points of intervention, one can then design changes focused on disruptive interventions.[10]

Examples[]

Category Disruptive innovation Market disrupted by innovation Notes
Academia Wikipedia Traditional encyclopedias Traditional, for-profit general encyclopedias with articles written by paid experts have been displaced by Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia which is written and edited by volunteer editors. Former market leader Encyclopædia Britannica ended its print production after 244 years in 2012.[11] Britannica's price of over $1000, its physical size of dozens of hard-bound volumes, its weight of over 100 pounds (45 kg), its number of articles (about 120,000) and its update cycles lasting a year or longer made it unable to compete with Wikipedia, which provides free, online access to over 6 million articles with most of them updated more frequently.

Wikipedia not only disrupted printed paper encyclopedias; it also disrupted digital encyclopedias. Microsoft's Encarta, a 1993 entry into professionally edited digital encyclopedias, was once a major rival to Britannica but was discontinued in 2009.[12] Wikipedia's free access, online accessibility on computers and smartphones, unlimited size and instant updates are some of the challenges faced by for-profit competition in the encyclopedia market.

Communication Telephony Telegraphy When Western Union declined to purchase Alexander Graham Bell's telephone patents for $100,000, their highest-profit market was long-distance telegraphy. Telephones were only useful at that time for very local calls. Short-distance telegraphy barely existed as a market segment, which explains Western Union's decision to not enter the emerging telephone market. However, telephones quickly displaced telegraphs, as telephones offered much greater communication capacity than telegraphs.
FM Radio AM Radio
Computer hardware Minicomputers Mainframes Minicomputers were originally presented as an inexpensive alternative to mainframes and mainframe manufacturers did not consider them a serious threat in their market. Eventually, the market for minicomputers (led by Seymor Cray—daisy chaining his minisupercomputers) became much larger than the market for mainframes.
Personal computers Minicomputers, workstations, word processors, Lisp machines Personal computers combined all functions into one device.
Pocket calculator 3.5 standard calculator[13] Equivalent computing performance and portable[14]
Digital calculator Mechanical calculator Facit AB used to dominate the European market for calculators, but did not adapt digital technology, and failed to compete with digital competitors.[15]
Mobile Phones Car Phones and MP3 players The inherent portability of mobile phones and eventual Bluetooth integration into cars and mobile phones rendered the need for a separate car phone moot. A similar situation occurred once mobile phones gained the ability to play and store a significant amount of MP3 files.
Smartphones All prior types of rudimentary mobile phones and PDAs Smartphones were both a revolutionary (in the mobile phone industry) and disruptive innovation (displacing PDAs) as they were: generally more capable than earlier types of mobile phones, introduced and popularized entirely new services/markets that were exclusive to smartphones, had a secondary function as a PDA, and could leverage existing cellular data services and increased computing power to connect to and use the internet to a greater extent than that of a typical PDA (which were usually reliant on Wi-Fi and retained limited computing power).
Data storage 8 inch floppy disk drive 14 inch hard disk drive The floppy disk drive market has had unusually large changes in market share over the past fifty years. According to Clayton M. Christensen's research, the cause of this instability was a repeating pattern of disruptive innovations.[16] For example, in 1981, the old 8 inch drives (used in mini computers) were "vastly superior" to the new 5.25 inch drives (used in desktop computers).[17]

However, 8 inch drives were not affordable for the new desktop machines. The simple 5.25 inch drive, assembled from technologically inferior "off-the-shelf" components,[17] was an "innovation" only in the sense that it was new. However, as this market grew and the drives improved, the companies that manufactured them eventually triumphed while many of the existing manufacturers of eight inch drives fell behind.[16]

5.25 inch floppy disk drive 8 inch floppy disk drive
3.5 inch floppy disk drive 5.25 inch floppy disk drive
Optical discs and USB flash drives Bernoulli drive and Zip drive
Display Light-emitting diodes Light bulbs A LED is significantly smaller and less power-consuming than a light bulb. The first optical LEDs were weak, and only useful as indicator lights. Later models could be used for indoor lighting, and now several cities are switching to LED street lights. Incandescent light bulbs are being phased out in many countries. LED displays and AMOLED are also becoming competitive with LCDs.
LCD LED displays CRT The first liquid-crystal displays (LCD) were monochromatic and had low resolution. They were used in watches and other handheld devices, but during the early 2000s these (and other planar technologies) largely replaced the dominant cathode-ray tube (CRT) technology for computer displays and television sets.

CRT sets were very heavy, and the size and weight of the tube limited the maximum screen size to about 38 inches; in contrast, LCD and other flat-panel TVs are available in 40", 50", 60" and even bigger sizes, all of which weigh much less than a CRT set. CRT technologies did improve in the late 1990s with advances like true-flat panels and digital controls; however, these updates were not enough to prevent CRTs from being displaced by flat-panel LCD displays.

Electronics Transistor Vacuum tube Vacuum tubes were the dominant electronic technology up until the 1950s. The first transistor was invented by Bell Labs in 1947, but was initially overlooked by radio companies such as RCA up until the mid-1950s, when Sony successfully commercialized the technology with the pocket transistor radio, leading to transistors replacing vacuum tubes as the dominant electronic technology by the late 1950s.[18]
Silicon Germanium Up until the late 1950s, germanium was the dominant semiconductor material for semiconductor devices, as it was capable of the highest performance up until then.[19][20] In the late 1950s, Mohamed M. Atalla developed the process of silicon surface passivation by thermal oxidation at Bell Labs.[21][22][20] This enabled silicon to surpass the conductivity and performance of germanium, and led to silicon replacing germanium as the dominant semiconductor material, paving the way for the silicon revolution.[20][23][24]
MOSFET Bipolar junction transistor The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was the dominant semiconductor device up until the 1960s.[25][26] In 1959, Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng invented the metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, or MOS transistor) at Bell Labs, and demonstrated it in 1960.[27] However, it was initially overlooked and ignored by Bell Labs in favour of BJTs.[28] In the 1970s, the MOSFET eventually replaced the BJT as the dominant semiconductor technology.[25] As of 2018, the MOSFET is the most widely manufactured device in history.[26]
Manufacturing Hydraulic excavators Cable-operated excavators Hydraulic excavators were clearly innovative at the time of introduction but they gained widespread use only decades after. However, cable-operated excavators are still used in some cases, mainly for large excavations.[29]
Mini steel mills Vertically integrated steel mills By using mostly locally available scrap and power sources these mills can be cost effective even though not large.[30]
Plastic Metal, wood, glass etc. Bakelite and other early plastics had very limited use - their main advantages were electric insulation and low cost. New forms of plastic had advantages such as transparency, elasticity and combustibility. In the early 21st century, plastics can be used for many household items previously made of metal, wood and glass.
Music and video Digital synthesizer Electronic organ, electric piano and piano Synthesizers were initially low-cost, low-weight alternatives to electronic organs, electric pianos and acoustic pianos. In the 2010s, synthesizers are significantly cheaper than electric pianos and acoustic pianos, all while offering a much greater range of sound effects and musical sounds.Template:Citation needed
Gramophone Pianola
Downloadable Digital media CDs, DVDs In the 1990s, the music industry phased out the vinyl record single, leaving consumers with no means to purchase individual songs. This market was initially filled by illegal peer-to-peer file sharing technologies, and then by online retailers such as the iTunes Store and Amazon.com.

This low end disruption eventually undermined the sales of physical, high-cost recordings such as records, tapes and CDs.[31]

Streaming video Video rental Video on demand software can run on many Internet-enabled devices. Since licensing deals between film studios and streaming providers have become standard, this has obviated the need for people to seek rentals at physically separate locations. Netflix, a dominant company in this market, was cited as a significant threat to video stores when it first expanded beyond DVD by mail offerings. The Netflix co-founders approached rental chain Blockbuster LLC in 2000 trying to sell their company. Blockbuster declined and ultimately ceased operation ten years later.[32]
Photography Digital photography Chemical photography Early digital cameras suffered from low picture quality and resolution and long shutter lag. Quality and resolution are no longer major issues in the 2010s and shutter lag issues have been largely resolved. The convenience of small memory cards and portable hard drives that hold hundreds or thousands of pictures, as well as the lack of the need to develop these pictures, also helped make digital cameras the market leader. Digital cameras have a high power consumption (but several lightweight battery packs can provide enough power for thousands of pictures).

Cameras for classic photography are stand-alone devices. In the same manner, high-resolution digital video recording has replaced film stock, except for high-budget motion pictures and fine art.Template:Citation needed The rise of digital cameras led Eastman Kodak, one of the largest camera companies for decades, to declare bankruptcy in 2012. Despite inventing one of the first digital cameras in 1975, Kodak remained invested in traditional film until much later.[33][34]

High speed CMOS image sensors Photographic film When first introduced, high speed CMOS sensors were less sensitive, had lower resolution, and cameras based on them had less duration (record time). The advantage of rapid setup time, editing in the camera, and nearly-instantaneous review quickly eliminated 16 mm high speed film systems. CMOS-based digital cameras also require less power (single phase 110 V AC and a few amps for high-performance CMOS, direct current 5V or 3.3V and two or three amps for low-power CMOS,[35] vs. 240 V single- or three-phase at 20-50 A for film cameras). Continuing advances have overtaken 35 mm film and are challenging 70 mm film applications.Template:Citation needed
Publishing Computer printers Offset printing Offset printing has a high overhead cost, but very low unit cost compared to computer printers, and superior quality. But as printers, especially laser printers, have improved in speed and quality, they have become increasingly useful for creating documents in limited issues.Template:Citation needed
Desktop publishing Traditional publishing Early desktop-publishing systems could not match high-end professional systems in either features or quality, but their impact was felt immediately as they lowered the cost of entry to the publishing business. By the mid-1990s, DTP had largely replaced traditional tools in most prepress operations.Template:Citation needed
Word Processing Typewriter The typewriter has been replaced with word processing software that has a wealth of functionality to stylize, copy and facilitate document production.
Transportation Steamboats Sailing ships The first steamships were deployed on inland waters where sailing ships were less effective, instead of on the higher profit margin seagoing routes. Hence steamships originally only competed in traditional shipping lines' "worst" markets.Template:Citation needed
Safety bicycles Penny-farthings Penny farthings were popular in the 1870s but rendered obsolete by safety bicycles.
Rail transport Canals, Horse-drawn vehicles The introduction of rail transport completely destroyed horse-drawn transport especially for long distances and also freight transport by canal was nearly wiped out. Rail transport led to the introduction of the joint-stock company, railway time and ultimately time zones and also opened up new markets for wider fresh produce and perishable goods distribution. In communications, newspapers and postal services were able to offer daily services over long-distances.[36][37]
Effects of the car on societies, Mass automobility Horse-drawn vehicles, Rail transport, Trams, Walking At the beginning of the 20th century, rail (including streetcars) was the fastest and most cost-efficient means of land transportation for goods and passengers in industrialized countries. The first cars, buses and trucks were used for local transportation in suburban areas, where they often replaced streetcars and industrial tracks. As highways expanded, medium- and later long-distance transports were relocated to road traffic, and some railways closed down. As rail traffic has a lower ton-kilometer cost, but a higher investment and operating cost than road traffic, rail is still preferred for large-scale bulk cargo (such as minerals). However, traffic congestion provides a bound on the efficiency of car use, and so rail is still used for urban passenger transport.
High speed rail Short-distance flights In almost every market where high speed rail with journey times of two hours or less was introduced in competition with an air service, the air service was either greatly reduced within a few years or ceased entirely. Even in markets with longer rail travel times, airlines have reduced the number of flights on offer and passenger numbers have gone down. Examples include the Barcelona-Madrid high speed railway, the Cologne Frankfurt high speed railway (where no direct flights are available as of 2016) or the Paris-London connection after the opening of High Speed 1. For medium-distance trips, like between Beijing & Shanghai, the high speed rail and airlines often end up in extremely stiff competition.
Private jet Supersonic transport The Concorde aircraft has so far been the only supersonic airliner in extensive commercial traffic. However, it catered to a small customer segment, which could later afford small private sub-sonic jets. The loss of speed was compensated by flexibility and a more direct routing (i.e. no need to go through a hub). Supersonic flight is also banned above inhabited land, due to sonic booms. Concorde service ended in 2003.[38]

Potential opportunities[]

Idea Value Scope
Digital Transformation $100 Trillion Global[39]
Asteroid Mining $100 Trillion Global[40]
Open borders $78 Trillion Global[41]
Disruptive Technologies $14- $33 trillion Global[42][43]
E-Commerce[44] $22 Trillion Developing Countries
Wealth Management $22 Trillion Global[45]
Smart City Tech $20 Trillion Global[46]
Artificial Intelligence $15.7 trillion Global[47]
Climate Change Mitigation $7 Trillion Global[48]
Advancing Women's Equality $12 Trillion Global[49][50]
Free Trade $11 Trillion Global[51]
Circular Economy $4.5 Trillion Global[52]
Closing Gender pay Gap $2 Trillion OECD[53]
Longer Working Lives $2 Trillion OECD[54]
Empower Young Workforce $1.2 Trillion OECD[55]
Car Sharing $1 Trillion Global[56]

Potential threats[]

Threat At Risk Scope
Drug resistant infections $100 Trillion Global[57]
Cyber attacks $6 Quadrillion Global[58]
Traffic Congestion $2.8 Trillion US[59]

See also[]

  • Blue Ocean Strategy
  • Creative destruction
  • Culture lag
  • Digital Revolution
  • Embrace, extend, extinguish
  • Hype cycle
  • Killer application
  • Leapfrogging
  • List of emerging technologies
  • Obsolescence
  • Pace of innovation
  • Paradigm shift
  • Product lifecycle
  • Shock doctrine
  • Stranded asset
  • Technology readiness level (NASA)
  • Technology strategy
  • Creative disruption
  • Robotic Process Automation
  • Artificial Intelligence
  • Frugal Innovation
  • Open Innovation

Notes[]

  1. Ab Rahman, Airini; et al. (2017). "Emerging Technologies with Disruptive Effects: A Review". PERINTIS eJournal. 7 (2). Retrieved 21 December 2017.
  2. Bower, Joseph L. & Christensen, Clayton M. (1995)
  3. Bagehot (15 June 2017). "Jeremy Corbyn, Entrepreneur". The Economist: p. 53. https://www.economist.com/news/britain/21723426-labours-leader-has-disrupted-business-politics-jeremy-corbyn-entrepreneur. "The most influential business idea of recent years is Clayton Christensen’s theory of disruptive innovation." 
  4. 4.0 4.1 Wu, Lingfei; Wang, Dashun; Evans, James A. (February 2019). "Large teams develop and small teams disrupt science and technology". Nature. 566 (7744): 378–382. Bibcode:2019Natur.566..378W. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-0941-9. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 30760923. S2CID 61156556.
  5. "The Altmetric Top 100 – 2019". Altmetric. Retrieved 2020-09-09.
  6. Christensen 2003, p. 49.
  7. Christensen 1997, p. 47.
  8. Assink, Marnix (2006). "Inhibitors of disruptive innovation capability: a conceptual model". European Journal of Innovation Management. 9 (2): 215–233. doi:10.1108/14601060610663587.
  9. Durantin, Arnaud; Fanmuy, Gauthier; Miet, Ségolène; Pegon, Valérie (1 January 2017). Disruptive Innovation in Complex Systems. pp. 41–56. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-49103-5_4. ISBN 978-3-319-49102-8. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  10. Acaroglu, L. (2014). Making change: Explorations into enacting a disruptive pro-sustainability design practice. [Doctoral dissertation, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology].
  11. Bosman, Julie (13 March 2012). "After 244 Years, Encyclopaedia Britannica Stops the Presses". The New York Times. http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/13/after-244-years-encyclopaedia-britannica-stops-the-presses/. 
  12. Tartakoff, Joseph (2009-03-30). "Victim Of Wikipedia: Microsoft To Shut Down Encarta". paidContent. Retrieved 1 April 2012.
  13. Christensen 1997, p. xviii. Christensen describes as "revolutionary" innovations as "discontinuous" "sustaining innovations".
  14. Christensen 1997.
  15. Sandström, Christian G. (2010). "A revised perspective on Disruptive Innovation – Exploring Value, Networks and Business models (Theisis submitted to Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, Sweden)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-05-11. Retrieved 2010-11-22.
  16. 16.0 16.1 Christensen 1997, p. 3-28.
  17. 17.0 17.1 Christensen 1997, p. 15.
  18. Kozinsky, Sieva (8 January 2014). "Education and the Innovator's Dilemma". Wired. Retrieved 14 October 2019.
  19. Dabrowski, Jarek; Müssig, Hans-Joachim (2000). "6.1. Introduction". Silicon Surfaces and Formation of Interfaces: Basic Science in the Industrial World. World Scientific. pp. 344–346. ISBN 9789810232863.
  20. 20.0 20.1 20.2 Heywang, W.; Zaininger, K.H. (2013). "2.2. Early history". Silicon: Evolution and Future of a Technology. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 26–28. ISBN 9783662098974.
  21. Kooi, E.; Schmitz, A. (2005). "Brief Notes on the History of Gate Dielectrics in MOS Devices". High Dielectric Constant Materials: VLSI MOSFET Applications. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 33–44. ISBN 9783540210818.
  22. Black, Lachlan E. (2016). New Perspectives on Surface Passivation: Understanding the Si-Al2O3 Interface. Springer. p. 17. ISBN 9783319325217.
  23. Feldman, Leonard C. (2001). "Introduction". Fundamental Aspects of Silicon Oxidation. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 1–11. ISBN 9783540416821.
  24. Sah, Chih-Tang (October 1988). "Evolution of the MOS transistor-from conception to VLSI" (PDF). Proceedings of the IEEE. 76 (10): 1280–1326 (1290). Bibcode:1988IEEEP..76.1280S. doi:10.1109/5.16328. ISSN 0018-9219. Those of us active in silicon material and device research during 1956–1960 considered this successful effort by the Bell Labs group led by Atalla to stabilize the silicon surface the most important and significant technology advance, which blazed the trail that led to silicon integrated circuit technology developments in the second phase and volume production in the third phase.
  25. 25.0 25.1 "The Foundation of Today's Digital World: The Triumph of the MOS Transistor". Computer History Museum. 13 July 2010. Archived from the original on 2021-12-11. Retrieved 21 July 2019.
  26. 26.0 26.1 "13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most Frequently Manufactured Human Artifact in History". Computer History Museum. April 2, 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2019.
  27. "1960: Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated". The Silicon Engine: A Timeline of Semiconductors in Computers. Computer History Museum. Retrieved August 31, 2019.
  28. Lojek, Bo (2007). History of Semiconductor Engineering. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 321–3. ISBN 9783540342588.
  29. Christensen 1997, pp. 61–76.
  30. Christensen 2003, pp. 37–39.
  31. Knopper, Steve (2009). Appetite for self-destruction : the spectacular crash of the record industry in the digital age. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-1-4165-5215-4.
  32. Spector, Mike (2010-09-24). "Blockbuster to remake itself under creditors". Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703384204575509331302481448. 
  33. McAlone, Nathan (2015-08-17). "Inventor of digital camera says Kodak never let it see the light of day". Business Insider. Retrieved 2017-08-06.
  34. "Kodak and The Digital Revolution - Management of Innovation and Change — PRADEEP SINGH" (in en-US). PRADEEP SINGH. 2015-03-05. https://pradeepsingh.com/kodak-digital-revolution/. 
  35. iPhone 7 Plus
  36. Denning, Steve. "Understanding Disruption: Insights From The History Of Business" (in en). Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/stevedenning/2014/06/24/understanding-disruption-insights-from-the-history-of-business/. 
  37. Schivelbusch, Wolfgang (2014). The Railway Journey. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520282261. JSTOR 10.1525/j.ctt6wqbk7.
  38. "Concorde grounded for good". 10 April 2003. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/2934257.stm. 
  39. "$100 Trillion by 2025: the Digital Dividend for Society and Business". World Economic Forum. Retrieved 2018-03-24.
  40. "The Biggest Opportunity of our Generation: Asteroid Mining could be a $100 Trillion Industry" (in en-US). Futurism. https://futurism.com/videos/the-biggest-opportunity-of-our-generation-asteroid-mining-could-be-a-100-trillion-industry/. 
  41. "A world of free movement would be $78 trillion richer" (in en). The Economist. 2017-07-13. https://www.economist.com/news/world-if/21724907-yes-it-would-be-disruptive-potential-gains-are-so-vast-objectors-could-be-bribed. 
  42. "Disruptive technologies: Advances that will transform life, business, and the global economy". McKinsey & Company. Retrieved 2018-03-11.
  43. "These 7 Disruptive Technologies Could Be Worth Trillions of Dollars" (in en-US). Singularity Hub. 2017-06-16. https://singularityhub.com/2017/06/16/the-disruptive-technologies-about-to-unleash-trillion-dollar-markets/#sm.0000sk8b5bnnudtrst31wwyc0k53e. 
  44. "unctad.org | $22 trillion e-commerce opportunity for developing countries". unctad.org (in European Spanish). Retrieved 2018-03-11.
  45. "The firms that trade stocks for mom and pop have a $22 trillion opportunity". Business Insider. http://www.businessinsider.com/morgan-stanley-22-trillion-opportunity-in-wealth-management-2016-9. 
  46. Inc., InterDigital. "Smart City Tech to Drive Over 5% Incremental GDP, Trillions in Economic Growth Over the Next Decade Reports ABI Research" (in en-US). GlobeNewswire News Room. https://globenewswire.com/news-release/2018/01/24/1304242/0/en/Smart-City-Tech-to-Drive-Over-5-Incremental-GDP-Trillions-in-Economic-Growth-Over-the-Next-Decade-Reports-ABI-Research.html. 
  47. Nelson, Eshe. "AI will boost global GDP by nearly $16 trillion by 2030—with much of the gains in China" (in en-US). Quartz. https://qz.com/1015698/pwc-ai-could-increase-global-gdp-by-15-7-trillion-by-2030-with-much-of-the-gains-in-china/. 
  48. Whiting, Alex (2018-01-26). "At Davos, bosses paint climate change as $7 trillion opportunity" (in en-US). The Sydney Morning Herald. https://www.smh.com.au/business/at-davos-bosses-paint-climate-change-as-7-trillion-opportunity-20180126-h0owt1.html. 
  49. "How advancing women's equality can add $12 trillion to global growth". McKinsey & Company. Retrieved 2018-03-11.
  50. McGrath, Maggie. "The $12 Trillion Opportunity Ripe For Investing Dollars: Advancing Gender Equality" (in en). Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/maggiemcgrath/2017/01/24/the-12-trillion-opportunity-ripe-for-investing-dollars-advancing-gender-equality/#1b22e4946d9a. 
  51. Lomborg, Bjørn (2018-03-15). "A Trade War On the World's Poorest by Bjørn Lomborg" (in en). Project Syndicate. https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/trade-war-hurts-world-poor-by-bjorn-lomborg-2018-03. 
  52. "Waste to Wealth: Creating advantage in a circular economy" (in en-gb). https://www.accenture.com/gb-en/insight-creating-advantage-circular-economy. 
  53. PricewaterhouseCoopers. "Women in Work Index" (in en). PwC. https://www.pwc.co.uk/services/economics-policy/insights/women-in-work-index.html. 
  54. PricewaterhouseCoopers. "Golden Age Index" (in en). PwC. https://www.pwc.co.uk/services/economics-policy/insights/golden-age-index.html. 
  55. PricewaterhouseCoopers. "Young Workers Index 2017" (in en). PwC. https://www.pwc.co.uk/youngworkers. 
  56. "Lyft thinks we can end traffic congestion and save $1 trillion by selling our second cars". The Verge. https://www.theverge.com/2018/1/10/16870732/lyft-traffic-congestion-car-ownership-ces-2018. 
  57. Sanofi. "Evotec and Sanofi in exclusive talks to create an Evotec-led Infectious Disease open innovation R&D platform" (in en-US). GlobeNewswire News Room. https://globenewswire.com/news-release/2018/03/08/1418077/0/en/Evotec-and-Sanofi-in-exclusive-talks-to-create-an-Evotec-led-Infectious-Disease-open-innovation-R-D-platform.html. 
  58. "Cybercrime may cost the world $11.4 million every minute in 2021" (in en-US). The Print. https://theprint.in/tech/cybercrime-may-cost-the-world-11-4-million-every-minute-in-2021-here-is-how-we-can-stop-it/556219/. 
  59. INRIX. "AMERICANS WILL WASTE $2.8 TRILLION ON TRAFFIC BY 2030 IF GRIDLOCK PERSISTS | INRIX". INRIX - INRIX. Retrieved 2018-03-28.

References[]

Further reading[]

External links[]